World War I Period

By Rob James

January 5, 2026

Coming of War

In a short term (one which completely ignores the effects of centuries if not millennia of European history), one can trace the ultimatums and responses from the June 28 assassination to the Aug. 3 German invasion of Belgium. Dozens of broader “explanations” have been offered, including Lenin’s attribution of war to late stage capitalism, failure of old means of diplomacy, changes in balance of power (Germany up, Balkan states and Ottoman Empire down), appetite of internal politics for foreign adventures, divert unhappiness of the dispossessed, and the simple chance occurrence of ultimatum dates versus the mobilization dates required by railway timetables.

But you can’t demonstrate cause and effect with any of these, without noting all the situations where the same cause wasn’t followed by the same effect. 

What you can say is that war occurred because several countries regarded war as preferable to other alternatives. Certainly, the weakness of the Austro-Hungarian empire’s control of its ethnic enclaves was the tinder. By most accounts the principal spark was Germany, which was seeking to challenge Britain for leadership, which escalated the AH/Serbian crisis, and which forewent diplomacy, giving far-flung Russia no choice but to mobilize. Junkers saw the war as an opportunity to sweep away German liberals and the entangling Austro-Hungarian coalition.

1914

The plans were pretty simple, and they failed.  Germany would hold off Russia and knock out France with the six-week-to-Paris Schlieffen Plan (but number of divisions was decreased, lowering odds of success). France would hold the German border then under Plan 17 advance into Alsace-Lorraine to the Rhine (but plan seriously underestimated German force). Russia would hold off Germany and strike Austria-Hungary at Galicia (but lack of North-South roads in Eastern Europe stymied coordination). UK would merely help French (hence the “British Expeditionary Force”) and blockade the German ports (at least the last bit worked).

In East, AH invaded Serbia twice and was repulsed twice; also repulsed by Russia in Carpathians—heavy loss of officers and NCOs holding a multilingual, multinational army together. Russia invaded E Prussia but Hindenburg and Ludendorff decisively won Tannenberg.

In West, French advance quickly rebuffed. Germans advanced into neutral Belgium and into France; Joffre wheeled round to defend Paris (First Battle of Marne), and Germans retreated to the Aisne; Race to the Sea, flank for flank—trench from the Channel to Switzerland. German strike for Calais (First Battle of Ypres) failed. French advances in center and south also failed.  At end of year 100 German divisions in West facing 110 French and British divisions, and 80 German and AH divisions in East facing 83 Russian divisions.

1915

Now the war is likely unwinnable—either call war off or give up offensive? Nah. Germans shore up AH, try but fail to relieve Przemysl; AH spent offensively. German drive into Russia and Galicia then succeeds (Przemysl relieved) but stalls before Riga. Russia spent offensively too.

Italy sees opportunity, renounces its treaty with Germany and AH, and attacks AH on Isonzo but fails. Bulgaria joins Central Powers and with Germans take Serbia.

British offensive on Western Front fails. April Ypres gas. May French-British attack on Vimy Ridge fails. Sept. Artois even worse (200,000 casualties to gain 2000 yards). Haig replaces French at year end.  Allies had a bad year, but another year went by without Germany winning and with AH getting weaker.

When Russia allies with Britain, Ottomans join Central Powers. Battles Russians in Caucasus. British take Suez Canal and Abadan refinery. Churchill champions “knocking our German props” in Middle East by taking Constantinople; fleet fails to do so, and ANZAC and French armies land at Gallipoli to much bloodshed. Action in Iraq and Palestine by 1917 (T.E. Lawrence foments Arabian revolt).

1916

Now all eyes are on the Western Front, where good and bad use of artillery starts to count. German fantasy that success will follow from knocking out the French army, but it’s the British army and, after sinking of the Lusitania, the American army mobilization that are the real threat. Germans shell Verdun, Petain “they shall not pass,” French win but are depleted. British launch June Battle of Somme after ineffective shelling; disaster (20,000 British dead the first day; eventually 650,000 allied and 400,000 German casualties). Tanks debut in September.

Summer Russians Brusilov attack AH. Romania joins the Allies and is promptly defeated. Ludendorf and Hindenburg take over for Falkenhayn, stop assault.

Battle of Jutland ends inconclusively but Germany didn’t break the blockade.

1917

Germans retreat to the more defensible West Hindenburg Line. U boat attacks on commercial traffic leads to US entry into war in April. Nivelle replaces Joffre, Lloyd George replaces PM Asquith. April “Nivelle offensive,” Vimy Ridge victory for Britain and Canada. French armies mutiny, Petain replaces Nivelle, offensives called off. Now all eyes are on Britain.  July Third Ypres (Passchendaele) rain, advance, more rain. Cambrai.

February Russian Revolution ousts czar; Kerensky tries offensive against AH; Germans take Riga. October Revolution, Bolsheviks abandon fight and somehow think German armies will mutiny—wrong. Italy defeated by Germany and AH at Caporetto.

1918

In 1914 the campaigns involved 80 divisions on each side—in three weeks the French lost 330,000 men. By 1917, campaigns were waged by as few as 3-4 divisions at a time, guaranteed to be ineffectual. In 1918, the big campaigns returned.

Germans moved some troops to the West, but they were also tempted to exploit the Russian collapse. March Brest-Litovsk Treaty, Germans took and held swaths of Eastern Europe, but that consumed 500,000 men who could have come in handy in the West.

March German advance toward Amiens first north, then turned south; by May within sight of Paris (Haig’s “Backs to the Wall” speech). July British and French counteroffensive, with better artillery firepower just as German artillery is declining. British military leaders keep offensives modest and in check—limited battles, with more success (“bite and hold”).

Americans under Pershing finally arrive in force, stem Germans at St. Mihiel. Then Allies in October pierce Hindenburg Line, by November are at the Scheldt and Sembre rivers. Ludendorf resigns. German industrial strikes and army mutinies. AH army falls apart. Italy attacks. Hungary and Czechoslovakia declare independence. Bulgaria quits war. Armistice effective November 11 at 11 am.

1919

Versailles was not all that punitive in context. It emerges that Soviets covertly supported German actions, thereby undermining the treaty.